Human Resource Management in practice

Loek Th.R. Wijchers

27

• INTRODUCTION
• SELECTION
• INTRODUCTION
• TRAINING
• ASSESSMENT
• JOB RATING
• QUALITY CONTROL
• LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

At present, more is written for the benefit of those in the Human Resources field than for any other group. Every week, or even daily, some book or article is printed somewhere that invariably emphasizes the importance of 'working man' and observes that good Human Resource Management (which term is intended to indicate that management of people is the main issue) is essential.
Furthermore every year countless conferences, seminars and workshops underline the fact that personnel policy should be more in line with the overall company goals and that the personnel department should fulfil, much more than before, an initiating role.
We are also frequently surprised by what is referred to as 'fads'. First we are told to do everything we can to improve working conditions, but very soon after that all money is put on performance evaluations. Subsequently we are flooded by examples that illustrate the importance of the right company culture, only to be told shortly after that to pay attention to a new training policy.
We can't help feeling that we have been occupying each other for at least fifteen years with instruments designed to ensure that we handle our human capital well and effectively. No wonder we hear the following statement more and more frequently: 'That's all very nice, but how am I supposed to do it in real life?' For all those wonderful stories don't provide the solutions for everyday practice.
A few examples can clarify this.

1. One often hears that the selection of employees is an important activity. Recruiting a new employee offers the opportunity to take another critical look at the job and the job requirements. But how do you select the right candidate when you have f.e. three candidates who are more or less equal in terms of quality, experience and education? And how do you find out if someone is really up to the job? Will the switchboard operator panic if many calls come in at the same time? Is that executive also able to chair a meeting effectively? Does that teacher possess didactical qualities? Is that secretary able to anticipate? All questions you cannot answer after a one hour selection interview.
   
   
2. Or take the new employee who finally starts work.
   We know that the lack of a good introduction increases the risk that an employee will get stranded in his first few months. But how do you organize an introduction programme? What is the importance of a mentor? Which questions may plague the newcomer? There is almost no literature on this subject, partly because it seems so obvious that it is difficult to get anyone interested.
   
   
3. Then there are the many questions about the return of training programmes. In the Netherlands we spend over seven billion(!) guilders on training (1990). The consensus is that this is a good thing. But what kind of training policy should you develop for your own company? Which indicators apply? How much money should you budget annually? These questions have been subject of discussion for many years without generating practical stepping-stones based on research for entrepreneurs.
   
   
4. The fourth example concerns assessment. Time and again we point out the importance of conducting sound performance evaluations in the interest of the company as well as the individual.
   But how do you design a good evaluation system? What systems are available? And which system is suitable for my organization?
   The amounts written on this subject are by now so huge that many people stopped seeing the wood for the trees a long time ago.
   
   
5. Another subject: job rating. A job rating system is supposed to help companies that want to construct a salary structure. But why set up such a thing in the first place? And if implementation has been decided on, how do you go about it? What job features can be distinguished? And: does such a system function when the company wants to change to flexible rewarding?
   
   
6. A final example. We hear a lot about the need for quality control. Action is also expected from the personnel department. But how do you achieve a balanced strategy with regard to quality improvement of employees? Which instruments are available and which instrument can I use to achieve quality improvement? In short: How can the personnel department help develop an effective quality policy?

There are answers to all of these questions. As we have said before: stacks of books that address these questions are published. Unfortunately a 'practical manual' is often missing and authors frequently get stuck in theoretical essays, or there is too much information to process and even then the sorely needed practical elaboration is absent.
The six examples listed above will be elaborated in this booklet from the series 'Developments and Ideas'. In no more than one thousand words per item (reading time less than ten minutes) the main issues are explained and you are provided with a concise guide to apply human resource management in your own practice.

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SELECTION

Mini assessment, selection based on reality

Three candidates of equal stature remained in the running for the position of trainer. The problem: who is the 'real' trainer?
The selection method we used was very thorough and comprehensive: well- thought out advertisement, letters of application, selection interviews, psychological examinations, etc.
Despite this multitude of selection methods no applicant stood out in such a way that a sound choice could be made. A mini assessment was the answer. The candidates were placed in a practical situation. Their assignment was to set up a training programme on a particular subject and to actually conduct part of it. After seeing the candidates in action, the decision was made in five minutes.

Mini assessment
I often hear that managers and personnel staff consider the Assessment Centre Method an important selection method, but also a very time and labour consuming one. And that is true. I am frequently asked if there is no middle course. Yes, I answer, there certainly is. With a little creativity you can think up countless examples of small exercises which will make candidates' behaviour visible. There is no law that says Assessments have to take place in groups and consist of a range of tests.

But first a brief history of the Assessment Centre Method (ACM). As early as 1958 companies started utilizing ACM, as f.e. large companies such as Standard Oil, IBM and General Electric. Without exception experiences have been positive. Although in the Netherlands application (64%), interview (94%) and psychological examination (25%) are used most frequently (Greuter and Roe, 1982), we observe a growing interest in the Asessment Centre Method. With good reason! For in fact it is only logical that you see candidates 'in action' and 'measure' whether the results meet the company's quality standards.

The Assessment Centre Method is an assessment instrument that provides insight into people's behavioural skills. It can be defined as a testing programme consisting of individual activities, (group activities,) tests and exercises, in which the candidates are observed by assessors. Based on these observations it is determined whether a canidate possesses the qualities and capacities considered essential for a position.
Interviews and psychological examinations generate information on aspects such as know how/expert knowledge, aptitude for figures and clarity of expression, but don't give any insight into the often very important behavioural skills. For example: how does a person react when put under pressure in a discussion? Can a person be persistent, but also react with flexibility at other times?

Simulating reality
An important starting point in the mini assessment is that the situational exercises are simulations of (elements of) the future position. It is different from the existing ACM in that it does not work with groups and there are fewer 'judges' (assessors) present. It works faster and in addition a lot less people are involved.

One example of such a mini assessment is from my own practice. An aspiring management consultant was subjected to a mini assessment in the form of role play. He first received some background information on 'the client'. Then followed an interview during which the client presented the problem to the consultant. The candidate's next task was to formulate how he would handle the problem and then write a proposal. The most important criterion when thinking up the exercises is that they should be as close to the future working situation as possible. The more concretely and naturally a situation is imitated, the better the results.

Another example. You have to hire a switchboard operator. Let him or her actually answer the phone and pretend to be a difficult client, a client who speaks a foreign language, a client who isn't sure what it is he wants etcetera. Countless situations come to mind.
In summary: simulate reality and see how the candidate works and reacts to sometimes strange and unfamiliar situations.

Setting up a mini assessment
Setting up a mini assessment means passing through a number of stages

• determining criteria for an effective functioning
• composing a package of exercises
• selecting candidates.

It is obvious that a sound job analysis makes or breaks a successful mini assessment. Based on this analysis the behavioural criteria that determine an effective filling of the position are selected.

A second important cornerstone is the registration of the behaviour. This process consists of several steps

• which behaviour is demonstrated in a particular situation
• which behaviour is desired in this, previously designed, situation
• valuating the demonstrated and desired behaviours
• evaluating the behaviour with the various asessors and coming to a final judgment.

After each simulation the assessors discuss their observations and scores. In this way a final picture emerges on each of the candidates. Combining the results is important to achieve the highest possible level of objectivity and reliability. The fact that the asessors are required to justify their conclusions also implies quality control. When all simulations are concluded the end results can be determined for each candidate. Subsequently a final judgment is determined, formulated and motivated. Finally, the candidates' profiles are compared with the job requirements and final conclusions can be drawn.

This may all seem rather complicated, but it isn't really. An aditional argument is that this way of selecting is enjoyable. And the results will certainly be the deciding factor to apply this type of reality-based selection more often.

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INTRODUCTION

Ten tips to improve introduction

The doorman is as busineslike as always: no badge, please return to reception first. The receptionist is pleasantly surprised: a new employee, nobody told her. Please sit down, someone will be with you in a minute. Coffee?
You wait, the manager is held up. Then, a hasty welcome. These are your new co-workers. They will show you the basic stuff, we'll talk later. Of course everybody is happy that the position is finally filled. As you can see, we're so busy we really needed another pair of hands. You'll be allright, won't you? How was your first day? Good, we'll see you tomorrow.

As common as this situation may be, it certainly isn't the best way to introduce a new employee into the organization. Actually, it isn't an introduction at all. Rather, it's a baptism of fire that your new employee probably wants to forget as soon as possible. A pity, considering the time and energy it takes to fill a vacancy: days or weeks of meetings about job and task description; large amounts of money spent on advertising; heaps of interviews. Wouldn't it make more sense to handle the introduction period as thoroughly as the preliminary process? In my opinion it does. Not from a desire to cosset 'the new guy', but because a person only performs optimally when he or she feels secure and at home.

Not everything at once
A new employee needs to receive a lot of information, all of which is important. That does not mean that it should be presented all at once. On the contrary, because the more you overfeed a person, the less information will eventually 'stick'. I distinguish four groups of information which are best spread out over a period of one week or more.

• Direct information relates to all practical matters of immediate relevance to your new employee, such as parking, working hours, materials and workclothes, coffee and tea, meals, and lavatories.
• Departmental information includes information on job description, assessment and performance evaluations, repro, mail, telephone etc., holidays, birthdays, security and department regulations.
• General information concerns the organization as a whole, i.e. (historical) background, goals and structure, company culture, traditions, festivities etc., information on welfare, sports and recreation.
• Personnel information comprises all issues that were perhaps mentioned in the initial interview, but which may require emphasis or clarification after the first few days on the job.

Ten tips for the introduction

1. Make your new employee feel welcome. Have him or her come in a little later on the first day so that there is enough time, discuss the planning of the introduction and put everything in writing.
2. Be aware that everything is new to him or her. Put the employee at ease, show the practical things first and emphasize that there is always someone available to answer his/her questions.
3. Provide something to hold on to by putting all relevant information on paper.
4. Don't try to tell everything in one go. No-one can absorb everything at once. Spread the information out over several days or even weeks.
5. Divide the information, preferably into four segments as described above. This simplifies distribution and therefore makes it easier to understand.
6. Appoint a mentor or take on that role yourself. This will provide the new employee with a strong sense of support.
7. Try to incorporate a specific question time period in the programme. This will prevent lingering lack of clarity, and will save time in the long run.
8. Turn the introduction into an introduction period. A lot of information can only be categorized logicaly after the first experiences provide a framework.
9. Reserve judgement! Nobody is entirely comfortable at first. It takes some getting used to the new situation before you can tell who you are dealing with.
10. Conclude the introduction with a final meeting. From that point on the new employee can be held completely accountable in terms of job and responsibility. In addition an evaluation will also provide you with useful information.

These tips will not bring salvation, nor are they comprehensive. Much will depend on your personal style and your organization's culture. But I hope these tips have demonstrated clearly that the 'sorry, no time' excuse should be avoided in any introduction. The commitment and motivation of your new employee are simply too valuable.

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TRAINING

Dutch industry spends approximately seven billion guilders on training every year. But is it a sensible investment?

How do I tell my boss?
As a rule of thumb the training budget may add up to approx. 4 per cent of the average gross pay. This percentage is based on empirical data. An advantage is its clear simplicity; the generality a disadvantage. This generality can become a real problem when the management ask if and how this one specific training course for this one, specific employee will bring a good return for the company. Don't be tempted into zero and final measurements linked to training objectives per incident, but focus your attention on the total training effort and its effects on the total organization profits. For that is the effect that counts.

In the context of the above mentioned research a training index has been developed that enables you to make a fairly accurate diagnosis of the return of the training efforts in your organization. The index shows that the quality of the training efforts has more effect on the company's performance than quantity (58% vs. 42%). The qualitative aspect is divided into: positioning of the training/education function (relative weight 29%, the didactical process (1%) and qualification levels (29%). Quantitative aspects are the number of training courses per employee (32%), the number of training days (10%) and the training costs (3%).

Five phases
Five phases are distinguished in positioning of the training function. The higher the need for a specific function in an organization, the larger the effort to achieve professional training and education. In phase 1 nothing is organized with regard to training. Action is taken only when employees exhibit an interest, or when gaps in their knowledge are revealed. Phase 2 also still lacks a systematic approach, but an expert is appointed for people to turn to with their questions. In phase 3 specific training courses or education plans are developed to fit the company's needs. During phase 4 a specific role is also defined for line management. Finally, in phase 5 training and education policy is expressly linked with the strategic goals of the company. In this phase training is viewed as a means to gain competitive advantage. As the training function is in a higher phase, the effect of the training effort on company performance increases.

Examples of such developments can be found in the financial function, the logistic function and of course the personnel and training function.

Selecting training programmes
Saying that the choice of training depends on the direction the company want to take may seem a bromide. However, all too often this strategic question is pushed aside or forgotten in the name of 'quality of education'. Research shows that this factor - didactics - only contributes 1% to the final return. In other words: a mediocre training course that is compatible with company strategy scores much higher than a high-quality training course that (partly) ignores the strategy.

The same goes for the term 'qualification level'. In everyday language this means that the issue here is: 'what kind of skill or expertise do we want to possess later on, and which employee is most suited to acquire it?' In all fairness this question is best answered by line management; in this context the training staff is more an advisor than a decision maker. In other words: consult extensively before the total training programme is committed to paper.

With regard to the quantitative aspect of the training effort three burning questions require an answer:

How long, how often and how expensive?
Research shows that the 32% of the effect on company result can be traced back to the factor 'how often?', and an additional 10% to the factor 'how long?'. Frequent, short training courses therefore have the best effect on company result. Also taking costs into account it is safe to say that the cheapest training course that meets the criteria 'suitable' and 'cheap' is the best one. Also because its didactical quality is not very important. The quantitative data generated by the study in question have an added positive side-effect: they provide a clear picture of what is essential to us practitioners: the optimal model. With due caution this model reads:

• optimally, each employee follows training courses a total of four to five days a year
• optimally those days are spread out over two or three courses
• optimally, a particular course therefore takes up approx. one and a half days
• optimally, the costs per employee per year are no more than Dfl. 1,600.

This model is not unequivocal. A quickly evolving high-tech company has different needs than a traditional gin distilling company (which isn't to say nothing is to be learned there).

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ASSESSMENT

Development as point of departure for assessment

From an historical point of view, assessment has always been in development. Obviously, because desires and requirements change with time. Employees are becoming increasingly independent and the meaning of concepts like leadership, motivation and labour participation has changed considerably over the years.
Following a period of pure assessment, methods like 'performance evaluation' and 'management by objectives' became popular. But recently we have been observing a trend back in the direction of pure assessment. Achievements that can be measured directly are once again gaining importance. Many companies use a system of merit pay for which performance evaluations are less suitable.

Setting up an assessment system
I am frequently asked: What should we look for and what is important in the development of an assessment system? Frankly, there is no one clear answer, because assessment systems can vary widely. Each organization has its own culture, its own goals and employees who are 'different'. This calls for a company-specific system. When developing an assessment system, emphasis should therefore not be placed on the instrument as such.
Still, several general points can be mentioned which are of major importance in the development of an assessment system, i.e.:

Goal
First of all there must be a clear answer to the question: why does the organization want to introduce an assessment system and what purpose will it eventually serve?

Consultation
Subsequently consultation must take place with stakeholders such as executives, works council, unions and the personnel department to gain an understanding of existing desires, ideas and opinions. Another possibility is to distribute a questionnaire among the employees.

Criteria
If you decide to to implement an assessment system, correct criteria on which the assessment will take place must be determined. Input from employees is important at this stage also.

Linking
If the system is linked with areas like determining terms of employment, training and education, management development etc. it must be clear how they are linked and what the consequences of the assessment will be.

Simplicity
An important prerequisite when selecting a system and the criteria are simplicity and transparency. Everybody in the organization must be able to read and understand. If the criteria are to be scored, then the method of scoring must be recorded.

Information
We recommend providing information to all stakeholders in writing on a frequent basis during the implementation phase. Information removes anxiety and uncertainty.

Management
The management must be positive about the assessment system. They must propagate the added value of the instrument. Nothing is more 'deadly' than negative comments about the assessment system from managers.

Rules
Assessment systems are accompanied by certain rules, such as: who has the right of inspection, where are the forms filed, who will do the assessment, up to what age will assessments take place, how long will the forms be valid, when will they be destroyed, and what procedure do we follow if an employee disagrees with the assessment.

Tracking system
It is advisable to have someone from the personnel department supervise the entire administrative procedure.

Training
All executives must be trained in doing the assessments. Interviewing techniques and attitude aspects are central.

Public relations
It is important to organize a general information meeting about the assessment system's goal, organization, critera, link with other areas etc., before it is implemented.

Location
It is important that one - preferably fixed - room is made available for the assessments.

Literature
If the company does not have its own library, we suggest you place books and articles about 'assessment' for general inspection in the personnel department.

Video
Various useful video tapes are available on the subject of assessments.

These points can be used as an 'agenda' in the development of your own assessment system.

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JOB RATING

Those of you who are thinking of setting up a job rating system can choose from dozens of models. And since the systems differ widely and are usually quite untransparent, the personnel manager once more has his job cut out for him. Those who work with it understand it, but management and the job holder often have no clue as to how the final valuation was arrived at. And this is such an important aspect, because a job rating system that is a 'black box' to the employees is difficult to accept. How it can be a fair instrument to base their salary on is therefore a mystery to many employees.
Fortunately however, there are also job rating systems that are transparent. Take for example the Integrated Function Analysis method (IFA). This is a clear instrument that also works very quickly. But more on this later.

Why job rating?
There can be various reasons to use a job rating system. Fair salaries were already mentioned. But this instrument can also provide insight into organizational issues. It is a tool in the fields of recruitment and selection, training and career planning, assessment and the information and communication process.

Top down or bottom up?
To reach a job description - which is the basis for the job rating - we can consult different sources. For example the job holder himself, his co-workers, the management, a personnel & organization staffer or an external consultant. Two main approaches can be distinguished, i.e. 'top down' and 'bottom up'.

In the top-down approach the management has the floor. An advantage of this approach is the high degree of controllability (partly because the top defines the function content), an effective, rapid structuring and an easy introduction of starting points for other applications.
A possible disadvantage is that the approach can be overly theoretical and not take sufficient account of the situation on the workfloor. Furthermore, no matter how accurate the job rating may be, the fact that the employees are barely involved can be especially detrimental with regard to acceptance.
The bottom-up approach - in which the job holder defines his own tasks - has a much higher degree of involvement (which increases the chances for eventual acceptance of the rating).
A disadvantage is that it is a time-consuming process that requires solid supervision and that sharp disputes between bosses and workers can flare up in which major and minor issues are not always clearly separated. An additional disadvantage is that the developed situation which is recorded is not always the most ideal situation.

Agreement between management and job holders
Central theme in the IFA is that management and job holders must agree about the job content. Which approach is then chosen - top down or bottom up - is not very important. In the IFA system the evaluation team consists of three members: a representative from the sector management, a P&O person and an external expert. Together they evaluate the following four job characteristics

• expertise
• independence
• responsibility
• physical conditions.

Expertise represents 45% of the total valuation, independence 23%, responsibility 25% and physical conditions 7%.
Within these job characteristics the three team members distinguish several perspectives which are each awarded a particular rating level. The relationship between them is best clarified by a table.

When analysis and valuation have taken place, the jobs are classified and a reward policy and salary scales are developed. Subsequently everybody is placed in a particular scale and the job holders have the opportunity to enter a protest with an Appeals Committee. This is essential, because - as stated before - there is no point to job rating if the parties do not agree about the job definition.

Follow-up is also important. And you should also keep in mind that changes in the organization and functions may affect job rating.

Major criteria
Criteria that the IFA meets and that you should definitely find in any other rating system are:

• The method must result, irrespective of company size and orientation, in a reliable, socially accepted order.
• The job characteristics and perspectives must apply to all functions within the organization (otherwise comparison is not possible)
• Quick and clear utilization of the method must be possible; the organization has various possibilities to give shape to the process.
• Levels of analysis must be described in such a way that unequivocal standardization of the perspectives is possible.
• There must be responsible participation of the people involved.

An aid in flexible reward systems
A job rating system can also be very helpful in an organization that uses flexible rewards.
Flexible reward is on the rise. Especially in young, modern companies that are often highly competitive. It motivates employees to perform well (because they can then earn much more) and if things don't go well in a particular period, the (then lower) wage costs are less drastic.
Although it is an american system, I know companies in the Netherlands that obtain good results by paying salaries that are partly fixed and partly flexible. The employees also seem to function very well.
A precondition for a flexible reward system, however, is that the individual contributions of each employee are recorded objectively. Failure to do this creates unrest and dissatisfaction, which absolutely does not benefit results and atmosphere. Especially in this situation the selection of a particular job rating system must be a balanced one. For job rating can bring a lot of good, but - if not done correctly - it can also cause your organization a lot of harm.

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QUALITY CONTROL

A question of policy

The statement that the quality of the employees is a key factor for the effective functioning of an organization is generally endorsed today. How to bring this quality to a higher level is a more difficult matter. There are many Human Resource instruments, but most important is that they are compatible. Personnel staff frequntly say: 'our company wants to do something about quality'. It is not easy to clearly define my role in this.

Personnel staff who are asked to name some instruments that can help improve the quality of their employees, can usually list a few. However, the interrelatedness of the various instruments is not as simple. A particular goal must be realized. For example improvement of motivation. Often the interrelatedness is overlooked, which means that efforts to increase quality take the shape of specific actions without an underlying strategy. So - to increase motivation - targets are proposed for each employee, without considering whether this fits into the company culture.

Overview of quality instruments
To be able to achieve a balanced strategy for the improvement of employee quality, I have ordered the various instruments into four categories.

Human resource policy
The quality-improving factors involved are: education level, professional knowledge and skills. These are generally named first by the personnel department as potential quality improvement instruments. And they are important. Do employees have the correct level of education. Too high maybe? Is it possible to change this level through training courses? In this context it is important to determine what type of employee you seek for the organization and record exactly what quality of employees is understood to be. Only then do you have the right breeding ground for a solid quality policy.

Organizational structure
This includes factors related to the way in which the different activities must be carried out. Do the employees have responsibilities? Or is the work monotonous and dull? Preferably not, of course, for dull work breeds dull employees. Or worse: dull work encourages good employees to look for other jobs, that do provide the opportunity for some personal input. Other elements in this category are: management by objectives - agreements beforehand about the performance to be provided - and research programmes focused on methods to further improve work effectiveness and efficiency.

Procedures
This category includes quality instruments such as recruitment and selection, career planning, terms of employment, work conditions, consultation, assessment and performance evaluations. These are all tools to help determine necessary adjustments in the quality policy. The Human Resources department must determine: what type of employees will we be needing in the long run? Can we prepare our current employees for those future requirements? Do they have the potential and would they be willing? And what about working conditions? Do they provide sufficient encouragement? Are the terms of employment such that employees feel stimulated to do their best and develop further?

Culture
We define culture as the prevailing norms and values in an organization and its employees. Values are f.e.: do we focus on turnover, career or customer? Organizational norms may be f.e.: quickest possible response to complaints, always looking groomed etc.
It is crucial that employees can identify with the atmosphere generated by these - often implicit - values and norms. It usually also determines to a great extent whether an employee can identify with the company and its products/services. Culture also includes: challenge (is the employee given a clearly defined, feasible goal?) and motivation (personal motivation to achieve definitely benefits the quality of the work).

Quality, a question of HR policy
If an organization wants to increase the quality level of its employees, then the personnel department will have to take action using the necessary instruments from one of the categories mentioned, ànd the quality instruments in the other categories must be in line.
Giving employees much more responsibility will have no effect if the task they are given is too complex for them. Developing a fantastic recruitment and selection system is pointless if the new people are then given boring tasks. Making wonderful resolutions in a company culture that promotes cutting corners isn't very productive either. You can think up a thousand examples of why a one-sided approach is doomed to fail.

Reading all this the HR manager will say: that's all very nice, but such an integral approach takes up much more time. And time is what I lack anyway. Let me respond by saying that it is often truly impossible to really tune all the elements in my overview. It is important, however, that the major relationships are recognized. Otherwise you may be taking action for no reason at all, which is truly a waste of your time.

It is sometimes said that a manager is as good as his employees. Only with proper care for our human capital can an organization function optimally. And in the strategic approach this requires, the personnel department should play an important role. For a balanced and planned policy in this area can have a crucial effect on the company's competitive position.

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Literatuur

L.Th.R. Wijchers en J.F. Verrijk, Modellenboek voor Personeel en Organisatie (losbladig), Samsom, Alphen aan den Rijn, 1988

L.Th.R. Wijchers en J. van den Bergh, Beoordelen in Nederland, Samsom, Alphen aan den Rijn, 1990

L.Th.R. Wijchers en J.A.A. van Duren, Leiding geven kun je leren, Samsom, Alphen aan den Rijn, 1991

L.Th.R. Wijchers, Artikelenreeks PRAKTIJK in P.W. personeelsmanagement, Amsterdam, september 1990 t/m juli 1991